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The Florida Council of Independent Schools
(FCIS) is a professional education association
founded in 1954 by a small group of independent
private school leaders. Their purpose was
to establish high standards for nonpublic
schools.
Today, FCIS evaluates and accredits independent
schools throughout Florida. As one of the
nation’s largest organizations of
independent schools, it represents over
77,000 students in 158 member schools. The
Council assures that each school maintains
high standards and independence of character
without political , financial, or bureaucratic
pressures.
FCIS accredits coed, day, boarding and
single sex schools in grades pre-kindergarten
through twelve. All FCIS schools have racially
nondiscriminatory admissions policies.
Traditionally, independent schools establish
their own philosophies, standards, and programs,
developing their own guidelines for academic
achievement, discipline, and, in some cases,
religious commitment.
The Council is an association member of
the National Association of Independent
Schools (NAIS) , an affiliate of the Council
of American Private Education (CAPE), and
a founding member of the Florida Association
of Academic Nonpublic Schools (FAANS).
All FCIS Schools provide a safe, nurturing
environment in which all students are encouraged
to reach full potential. However, independent
schools, by definition are unique. In the
directory, FCIS schools appear alphabetically.
Location, contact information, administration
details, cost and program descriptions are
provided in the hope that parents will be
able to narrow the possibilities.
The next step is to visit the campus. Be
sure to visit when school is in session
and students are on campus.
The National Association of Independent
Schools (NAIS) recommends that you ask these
five questions when looking for a school:
Are the teachers high quality and committed?Does
the school have a low student-to-teacher
ratio?Do students feel challenged by their
school?
Do parents, teachers and students share
a strong partnership?Does the school climate
support achievement?
Additionally, The Florida Department of
Education and the Florida Association of
Academic Nonpublic Schools (FAANS) encourage
you to learn.
Look for strong leadership. Is the school
generally clean? Evaluate the appearance
and attitudes of the students. Are they
ready and willing to answer your questions?Ask
how long the principal has been at the school
and the principal’s background.
What are the qualifications of the teachers?
Is assistance available for students with
different learning styles? How are students
grouped? Ask for the names of parents with
whom you can speak about theschool
If you are looking for an upper school,
ask for a senior class profile. This should
tell you what colleges have accepted students
from the school and what percentage of students
continued on and graduated from four year
universities.What is the school’s
philosophy? Is the curriculum primarily
college preparatory or vocational?How extensive
are course offerings? For example, how many
AP classes are offered?Ask about the guidance
program. How much assistance is given to
students when selecting colleges?Ask about
professional affiliations with educational
and/or religiousorganizations.
Is the school accredited? The State of
Florida does not accredit elementary or
secondary schools, but many nonpublic schools
are accredited by associations recognized
by FAANS. These schools voluntarily submit
to a periodic review by a state wide agency
or peer evaluators, a set of standards for
teachers and administrators, and a code
of professional, ethical behavior.“What
are the principal qualities that distinguish
a school as Episcopal?”
This question, more than any other, is
asked of NAES by Episcopal school and Church
leaders, parents and the general public.
The answer is that they are Christian communities
whose missions integrate spiritual formation
into all aspects of the educational experience.
Episcopal schools are most distinctive when
they are true to this mission and when they
do so in the graceful and inclusive manner
which is the hallmark of the Anglican approach
to education over the centuries.
All Christian communities, even the most
ecumenical and diverse of Episcopal schools,
are upheld by the basic principles of the
Baptismal Covenant. As expressed in The
Book of Common Prayer, this Covenant maintains
that individuals and institutions are called
by God to adopt certain fundamental disciplines
and dispositions in order to embrace fully
their basic identities. As embodiments of
the Christian faith, Episcopal schools are
created to be communities that honor, celebrate
and worship God as the center of life. They
are created to be models of God's love and
grace. They are created to serve God in
Christ in all persons, regardless of origin,
background, ability, or religion. They are
created to “strive for justice and
peace among all people and [to] respect
the dignity of every human being.”
These principles are the basis on which
identity and vocation are to be defined
in Episcopal schools.
Episcopal schools are populated by a rich
variety of human beings, from increasingly
diverse religious, cultural and economic
backgrounds. In fact, the intentional pluralism
of most Episcopal schools is a hallmark
of their missions. It is also a distinguishing
characteristic of these schools that they
seek to integrate religious and spiritual
formation into the overall curriculum and
life of each school community. Episcopal
schools are clear, yet graceful, about how
they articulate and express their basic
identities, especially in their religious
curricula and traditions. They invite all
who attend and work in them — Episcopalians
and non-Episcopalians, Christians and non-Christians,
people of no faith tradition — both
to seek clarity about their own beliefs
and religions and to honor those traditions
more fully and faithfully in their own lives.
Above all, Episcopal schools exist not merely
to educate, but to demonstrate and proclaim
the unique worth and beauty of all human
beings as creations of a loving, empowering
God.
By weaving these principles into
the very fabric of the school's overall
life, Episcopal schools ensure that their
missions are built on the sure foundation
of a Christian love that guides and challenges
all who attend our schools to build lives
of genuine meaning, purpose and service
in the world they will inherit.
Welcome to the community of Episcopal schools.
The National Association of Episcopal Schools,
an independently incorporated, voluntary
membership organization, supports, serves
and advocates for the vital work and ministry
of those who serve over 1000 Episcopal schools,
Early Childhood Education programs and school
exploration/establishment/expansion efforts
throughout the Episcopal Church U.S.A. Chartered
in 1965, with historic roots dating from
the 1930s, NAES is the only pre-collegiate
educational association that is both national
in scope and Episcopal in character.
NAES provides advocacy and a variety
of services, publications, resources and
professional development opportunities in
support of school leaders and consonant
with the Association's mission. Offerings
are focused in two areas:
Episcopal School Identity as expressed
through school worship; religious studies
and formation; community life and social
justice.
Leadership and Governance matters pertaining
to the work of heads, chaplains and teachers
of religion, administrators, trustees, rectors,
vestries; leadership transition; school
ministry recruitment, training and deployment;
and school establishment, expansion and
planning.
As a voluntary membership services organization,
NAES does not accredit Episcopal schools,
nor does it establish or have statutory
oversight of the academic and religious
programs or governance of any Episcopal
school.
Welcome to the community of Episcopal
schools and to the ministry of the National
Association of Episcopal Schools.
The National Association of Episcopal Schools,
an independently incorporated, voluntary
membership organization, supports, serves
and advocates for the vital work and ministry
of those who serve over 1000 Episcopal schools,
Early Childhood Education programs and school
exploration/establishment/expansion efforts
throughout the Episcopal Church U.S.A. Chartered
in 1965, with historic roots dating from
the 1930s, NAES is the only pre-collegiate
educational association that is both national
in scope and Episcopal in character.
NAES provides advocacy and a variety
of services, publications, resources and
professional development opportunities in
support of school leaders and consonant
with the Association's mission. Offerings
are focused in two areas:
Episcopal School Identity as expressed
through school worship; religious studies
and formation; community life and social
justice.
Leadership and Governance matters pertaining
to the work of heads, chaplains and teachers
of religion, administrators, trustees, rectors,
vestries; leadership transition; school
ministry recruitment, training and deployment;
and school establishment, expansion and
planning.
As a voluntary membership services organization,
NAES does not accredit Episcopal schools,
nor does it establish or have statutory
oversight of the academic and religious
programs or governance of any Episcopal
school.
Welcome to the community of Episcopal
schools and to the ministry of the National
Association of Episcopal Schools.
For a review of the Association's
activities of the past year, download Annual
Report
Mission and Philosophy of the National
Association of Episcopal Schools
The mission of the National Association
of Episcopal Schools is to serve those who
serve Episcopal schools.
Within the Christian tradition
of inclusion and open inquiry, the National
Association of Episcopal Schools:
Affirms the spiritual dimension of learning
that values both faith and reason.
Creates and nurtures an extended community
of leaders in order to foster partnerships,
unity, mutual support and professional growth.
Promotes personal formation through moral,
spiritual, intellectual, creative, physical
and social development.
Assists Episcopal schools in creating supportive
communities through worship, learning, pastoral
care and service.
Recognizes, appreciates and supports the
diversity within and among Episcopal schools.
Helps schools explore, discover and articulate
their visions and ministries as Episcopal
schools.
Mission Statement
A diverse, international community
of educators, forging covenants in teaching
and learning for the success of all learners
History and Membership
Founded in 1943, the Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development
(ASCD) is an international, nonprofit, nonpartisan
organization that represents 160,000 educators
from more than 135 countries and 66 affiliates.
Our members span the entire profession of
educators—superintendents, supervisors,
principals, teachers, professors of education,
and school board members.
We address all aspects of effective
teaching and learning—such as professional
development, educational leadership, and
capacity building. ASCD offers broad, multiple
perspectives—across all education
professions—in reporting key policies
and practices. Because we represent all
educators, we are able to focus solely on
professional practice within the context
of "Is it good for the children?"
rather than what is reflective of a specific
educator role. In short, ASCD reflects the
conscience and content of education.
We recently celebrated 60 years
as one of the world's largest educational
associations. We created online resources
that allow you to
View a historical time line.
Revisit key events in ASCD history.
Read the remembrances of past presidents.
A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal School.
Learn About ASCD
Read about ASCD and our activities in our
Annual Report.
Learn about ASCD's beliefs, mission, vision,
and goals by viewing our Strategic Plan.
Learn more about what we believe through
our adopted positions.
Find out about ASCD's background and history.
Discover the benefits of membership.
Already a member? Get involved in the ASCD
Community.
Join the ASCD family—check out our
career opportunities.
ASCD is governed by an 18-member
Board of Directors, which meets three times
a year and is chaired by the Association's
President. Leadership is also provided by
an elected and appointed Leadership Council
of approximately 185 members. Leadership
Council members are elected both from affiliates
and members at-large. The Council also includes
the members of the Board of Directors. Elections
for ASCD offices are contested and no campaigning
is allowed. A balanced slate of diverse,
qualified candidates is selected annually
by the Nominations Committee, and those
elected serve staggered terms.
ASCD also benefits from a Review Council,
which analyzes the extent to which the Association's
purposes are being carried out. The Review
Council reports annually to the Board of
Directors. The five members of the Review
Council are elected at-large to five-year,
staggered terms. Public Education in the
United States, programs of instruction offered
to children, adolescents, and adults in
the United States through schools and colleges
operated by state and local governments.
Unlike the nationally regulated and financed
education systems of many other industrialized
societies, American public education is
primarily the responsibility of the states
and individual school districts.
The national system of formal education
in the United States developed in the 19th
century. It differed from education systems
of other Western societies in three fundamental
respects. First, Americans were more inclined
to regard education as a solution to various
social problems. Second, because they had
this confidence in the power of education,
Americans provided more years of schooling
for a larger percentage of the population
than other countries. Third, educational
institutions were primarily governed by
local authorities rather than by federal
ones.
The most notable characteristic of the
American education system is the large number
of people it serves. In 2002, 86 percent
of Americans between age 25 and 29 had graduated
from high school, 58 percent had completed
at least some college, and 29 percent had
earned at least a bachelor’s degree.
Expanding access to college education is
an important priority for the U.S. government.
After the American Revolution (1775-1783),
the founders of the United States argued
that education was essential for the prosperity
and survival of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson,
author of the Declaration of Independence,
proposed that Americans give a high priority
to a “crusade against ignorance.”
Jefferson was the first American leader
to suggest creating a system of free schools
for all persons that would be publicly supported
through taxes. In 1779 he proposed an education
plan that would have supported free schooling
for all children in the state of Virginia
for three years. The best students from
this group would continue in school at public
expense through adolescence. The most advanced
of these students would go on to publicly
funded colleges. Jefferson’s proposal
was never enacted and his idea of selecting
the best and brightest students for special
advantage failed to gain widespread support.
However, Jefferson’s plans for universal
education and for publicly funded schools
formed the basis of education systems developed
in the 19th century.
Until the 1840s American education was
not a system at all, but a disjointed collection
of local, regional, and usually private
institutions. The extent of schooling and
the type of education available depended
on the resources and values of the particular
town or city, on the activities of religious
groups seeking to further their ends through
schools and colleges, and on many other
private groups—such as philanthropic
associations and trade organizations—that
created different types of schools for different
reasons. Most institutions only provided
educational opportunities for boys from
wealthy families. Public governing bodies
were rarely involved in the financing or
control of schools. See also Private Education
in the United States. A Jacksonville Beach
Episcopal School.
II Elementary Education and the Common-School
Movement
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The American school system originated in
the 1830s and 1840s, when a new generation
of education reformers attacked the tradition
of disjointed and localized education. Prominent
American educators, such as Horace Mann
in Massachusetts and Henry Barnard in Connecticut,
sought to increase educational opportunity
for all children by creating the common-school
movement. In 1837 Mann became secretary
of the board of education in Massachusetts
and supervised the creation of a statewide
common-school system. Barnard led similar
efforts in Connecticut where he became superintendent
of common schools in 1849. The term common
meant several things to these educators.
Their reform efforts focused on elementary
education, on the idea that all young children
should be schooled, and on the notion that
the content of education should be the same
for everyone. A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal
School.
The common-school reformers optimistically
argued that education could transform all
youth into virtuous, literate citizens.
They suggested that education could build
a distinctive new nation that would be better
equipped to compete with other countries.
They appealed to people’s fears about
growing economic and religious tensions
in the United States as immigration of various
ethnic groups increased. The reformers believed
that common schooling could create common
bonds among an increasingly diverse population.
It could also preserve social stability
and prevent crime and poverty. Common-school
advocates contended that free elementary
education should be available to everyone,
that it should be financed by public funds,
and that it should be conducted in schools
accountable not only to local school boards
but to state governments. They also argued
for the establishment of compulsory school
attendance laws for children of elementary
school age.
By the end of the 19th century the reformers
had largely achieved their objective. Free
public education at the elementary level
was available for all American children.
Massachusetts passed the first compulsory
school attendance laws in 1852, followed
by New York in 1853. By 1918 all states
had passed laws requiring children to attend
at least elementary school. A Jacksonville
Beach Episcopal School.
Not everyone accepted publicly funded and
controlled schools as the only way to provide
education. The most significant opposition
came from members of the Roman Catholic
Church, who believed that the moral values
taught in public schools were biased toward
Protestantism. Arguing that proper education
could not separate intellectual development
from moral development, Catholics created
their own separate school system. In 1925
the Supreme Court of the United States ruled
in Pierce v. Society of Sisters that states
could not compel children to attend public
schools, and that children could attend
private schools instead. In 1994, 11 percent
of American students in elementary and secondary
schools attended private institutions. Most
of these attended Catholic schools.
III Secondary Schools
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Before the 20th century, a bewildering
variety of schools existed for the small
number of teenagers who had the ability
or the desire to pursue education beyond
the elementary level. These schools offered
students opportunities to prepare for college,
or to learn a complex skill instead of competing
for one of the rapidly decreasing number
of on-the-job apprenticeships. Only a relatively
small number of teenagers had the ability
or desire to pursue secondary education.
In 1900 only 10 percent of American adolescents
aged 14 to 17 were enrolled in high schools.
Most of these students were from affluent
families. A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal
School.
The first publicly supported secondary
school in the United States was Boston Latin
School, founded in 1635. But until the late
19th century secondary education was mostly
conducted by private tutors or privately
supported academies. Public financing for
secondary education was rare until 1874,
when a Michigan Supreme Court decision involving
the city of Kalamazoo established that communities
could use local property taxes to support
high schools.
The rise in American high school attendance
was one of the most striking developments
in U.S. education during the 20th century.
From 1900 to 2000 the percentage of teenagers
who graduated from high school increased
from about 6 percent to about 88 percent.
High school attendance grew because more
and more students regarded additional schooling
as the key to succeeding in an increasingly
urban and industrialized society. In addition,
after the introduction of strict child labor
laws in the early 20th century, fewer teenagers
entered the workforce than they had previously,
which gave them the time to attend school.
School provided teenagers with an acceptable
alternative to labor that gave meaning to
their lives before they entered the workforce,
established a family, or began college.
As the 20th century progressed, most states
enacted legislation extending compulsory
education laws to the age of 16. Most students
found it more enjoyable—and more profitable
in the long run—to stay in school
beyond the legal limits than to leave, or
drop out, before graduating.
The 20th century high school was a uniquely
American invention. More than elementary
schools or colleges, high schools demonstrated
the American faith that schooling could
successfully address a lengthening list
of individual and social concerns. High
schools provided supervision and a place
for youth to experience adolescence with
friends. They also sought to give students
education to meet the practical demands
of everyday life, to get a job, or to go
on to more education. By “Americanizing”
immigrants into mainstream political and
social values, public high schools worked
to accomplish for adolescents what the common
elementary school had always attempted for
younger students. High schools thus embodied
the sometimes contradictory values of educating
students to fit into American society while
providing opportunities for them to break
out from whatever social or economic circumstances
constrained their development.
IV Higher Education
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During the 20th century participation in
higher or postsecondary education in the
United States increased as dramatically
as it did in American high schools. At the
beginning of the century about 2 percent
of Americans from the ages of 18 to 24 were
enrolled in a college. There were fewer
than 1,000 colleges then, with enrollment
totaling about 157,000 students. Near the
end of the century more than 60 percent
of this age group, or over 14 million students,
were enrolled in about 3,500 four-year and
two-year colleges. This tremendous increase
did not even include the 6,500 postsecondary
vocational and technical institutes that
enrolled millions of additional students
but did not give bachelor’s or associate
degrees.
A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal School.
Religious convictions motivated the founding
of the earliest American colleges, such
as Harvard (1636), College of William and
Mary (1693), and Yale (1701). In the 19th
century rivalry among Protestant denominations,
and competition among towns seeking a commercial
edge over their rivals, were responsible
for the creation of hundreds of colleges.
Almost all were privately supported, and
many failed to survive. Nevertheless, 573
colleges existed in the United States in
1870, a testament to civic and religious
support and to the faith of Americans in
the power of schooling.
Unlike in elementary and secondary education,
where public support and control of schools
soon became the norm, public institutions
never dominated college and university education.
Unlike the religious controversy surrounding
elementary and secondary schools, the religious
origins of many private colleges were never
seen as a threat to mainstream values. Government
officials also believed colleges served
broad public purposes, such as the training
of physicians or engineers. The Morrill
Acts of 1862 and 1890 provided federal financial
support to state universities. The acts
also led to the establishment of many new
land-grant colleges and state universities
through gifts of federal land to the states
for the support of higher education.
By the end of the 19th century scientific
and scholarly research flourished at both
private and public universities. Commercial
and practical uses of knowledge, especially
in agriculture and engineering, created
powerful incentives for states to increase
financial support for their public universities.
In addition, the numbers of students attending
college increased dramatically after World
War II ended in 1945, which further pressed
states and municipalities to expand opportunities
for publicly funded postsecondary education.
Federal financial aid for students provided
by the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act
of 1944—also known as the GI Bill—stimulated
this surge in college enrollment following
the war.
V Tension Between Localism and Centralization
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Individual states—rather than the
federal government—have primary authority
over public education in the United States.
In 1794 New York became the first state
to establish a board of regents to oversee
public education. Eventually, every state
developed a department of education and
enacted laws regulating finance, the hiring
of school personnel, student attendance,
and often curriculum. Until the 20th century
the degree of regulation varied enormously
from state to state.
A Traditions of Localism
In general, however, states have delegated
control over public education matters to
local districts, with the exception of licensing
requirements and general rules concerning
health and safety. Public schools have also
relied heavily on local property taxes to
meet the vast majority of school expenses.
American schools have thus tended to reflect
the educational values and financial capabilities
of the communities in which they are located.
When students move from one community to
another, they often encounter entirely different
curriculums even though they are in the
same grade. Even within a given school district,
different neighborhoods often contain very
different public schools.
A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal School.In
contrast, countries like France, Germany,
and Japan have school systems that are financed
and regulated on the national level. This
has allowed them to maintain a relatively
uniform school environment throughout their
respective countries, regardless of the
values and economies of local communities.
They have also accomplished this partly
by mandating highly competitive standardized
examinations. These exams usually have direct
consequences for the students who take them,
often by permitting or denying access to
higher education or positions of employment.
B Centralizing Tendencies
As greater numbers of Americans enrolled
in schools during the 20th century, education
became a powerful social and economic force.
Efforts to increase the size and efficiency
of public schools led to the creation of
more centralized school systems. To bring
order and efficiency to school systems,
American educators had already developed
standardized mechanisms of school organization
by the end of the 19th century. For example,
class placement was determined by a student’s
age, each class period was a specified length,
and students graduated after a specified
number of years in attendance.
Schools also became more centrally organized
as education developed into a highly structured
profession with a streamlined chain of administrative
command. For example, in the late 19th century
the position of the school superintendent
increased in power and influence. The first
public school superintendent began directing
the Buffalo, New York, school system in
1837. By 1900 the superintendent had replaced
the school principal as the most influential
and highest paid figure in public elementary
and secondary education.
A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal School.Also
by 1900 specialized teacher training institutions
called normal schools were well established,
and many had already become four-year degree-granting
colleges. Institutions that provided training
for teachers developed expertise that often
led to standardized practices, ranging from
notions about the ideal size of elementary
classrooms to the ideal form of a lesson
plan. As education became a bigger and more
lucrative enterprise, mass-market textbook
publishing companies and testing organizations
made significant profits by producing materials
used in schools throughout the country.
C Increased State Involvement
As the 20th century progressed most states
assumed a more active regulatory role than
in the past. A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal
School.States consolidated school districts
into larger units with common procedures.
In 1940 there were over 117,000 school districts
in the United States, but by 2000 the number
had decreased to fewer than 15,000. The
states also became much more responsible
for financing education. They helped fund
the rapid expansion of state postsecondary
institutions after World War II. They sometimes
supported efforts to equalize local school
district expenditures by using state funds
and state laws to ensure more equitable
per pupil expenditures regardless of the
wealth or poverty of individual districts.
In 1940 local property taxes financed 68
percent of elementary and secondary school
expenses, while the states contributed 30
percent and the federal government contributed
2 percent. In 1999 state governments contributed
49 percent of elementary and secondary school
revenues, local districts contributed 44
percent, and the federal government provided
7 percent.
Since the 1980s, virtually all states have
given unprecedented attention to their role
in raising education standards. A Jacksonville
Beach Episcopal School.Much of the initiative
for greater state involvement in education
stemmed from the publication of a report
by a federal commission in 1983 that indicated
low academic achievement in American schools.
This report, entitled A Nation at Risk,
presented statistics suggesting that American
students were outperformed on international
academic tests by students from other industrial
societies. Statistics also suggested that
American test scores were declining over
time. Many parents, educators, and government
officials believed that only a concerted,
centralized reform effort could overcome
these apparent shortcomings of American
education. Because the perceived crisis
in student performance was based largely
on test-score results, most states have
implemented reform strategies that emphasize
more frequent testing conducted by states,
more effective state testing, and more state-mandated
curriculum requirements. Some educators
have also proposed the introduction of “high-stakes”
examinations, in which performance on the
examination would have a significant impact
on the individual taking the test. Results
on a high stakes examination might either
permit or restrict a student’s access
to higher education or the job market. Despite
widespread support for such examinations,
few states have introduced them.
D Increased Federal Involvement
Although educational authority resides
ultimately with the states, the federal
government has long encouraged and assisted
specific educational activities that it
considers to be in the national interest.
The federal government’s activities
in the field of education have further centralized
American schooling. The Smith-Hughes Act
of 1917, for example, helped create vocational
programs in high schools, and the GI Bill
of 1944 was the first important federal
effort to provide financial aid for military
veterans to attend college. A Jacksonville
Beach Episcopal School.In addition, federal
civil rights laws require all schools and
colleges to conform to national standards
of educational equality.
The federal commitment to improve and finance
public schools expanded enormously when
Congress passed the National Defense Education
Act of 1958 and the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act of 1965. In these two landmark
statutes, Congress addressed for the first
time such broad problems as expanding educational
opportunity for poor children and improving
instruction in pivotal but usually neglected
subjects, such as science, mathematics,
and foreign languages. In addition, these
laws strengthened many large universities
by providing federal funds for research.
They also supported students attending private
colleges by providing federal support for
financial aid. Because this assistance came
from federal sources rather than from state
or local governments, it increased centralized
control of American education.
Federal involvement in schools during the
1980s and 1990s was expressed less by legislation
providing money for new programs than by
government reports and proclamations that
schools were performing insufficiently.
A Nation at Risk and many subsequent federal
reports and studies on the condition of
schooling sparked a vigorous school reform
effort at local and state levels. But aside
from espousing ambitious national education
goals, the federal government was far less
active in shaping education legislation
during the 1980s and 1990s than it had been
in the 1960s and 1970s.
The role of the federal government in setting
education policy increased significantly
with the passage by Congress of the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001, a sweeping education
reform law that revised the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act of 1965. A Jacksonville
Beach Episcopal School.Signed by President
George W. Bush in 2002, the new law seeks
to identify poorly performing public schools
by requiring states to test students in
grades three through eight annually in reading
and math. Schools that fail to make “adequate
yearly progress” toward state proficiency
standards must allow students to transfer
to better-performing public schools. If
poor performance continues, schools must
offer supplemental services such as private
tutoring; persistently failing schools must
take corrective actions, such as replacing
certain teachers or changing the curriculum,
or risk being restructured or taken over
by the state. The law also requires all
public school teachers to be “highly
qualified” in their subject areas
by the end of the 2006 school year.
Although the No Child Left Behind Act passed
with broad support from both Democratic
and Republican members of Congress, the
law has stirred considerable controversy
in the education community. Some critics
argue that federal funding of education
is insufficient to accomplish the goals
of the law and that the law erodes local
control over schools. Additionally, some
education officials have warned that under
the law’s strict provisions, many
schools will be identified as failing even
if they are making progress in most areas.
However, other officials have praised the
law for its goal of improving the academic
performance of all students, including poor
students, minorities, and students with
disabilities.
VI Education and Equality
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Despite the fact that American education
has provided unprecedented educational opportunities,
some groups of Americans have benefited
from the system more than others. Especially
since the 1950s, public policy toward education
has sought to provide greater equity—that
is, equality of educational opportunity
for all Americans. Policymakers have attempted
to eliminate various forms of discrimination
in schools even more than they have addressed
issues of educational quality or standards.
Most federal intervention into the educational
practices of local school relates to issues
of equal educational opportunity.
A Racial Equality
During the 1950s segregation by race in
public and private schools was still common
in the United States. In the American South
separate schools for African Americans and
whites were sanctioned by state laws that
had been upheld by the Supreme Court of
the United States in Plessy v. Ferguson
(1896). In the North no such laws existed,
but racial segregation was common in schools
located in segregated neighborhoods and
in school districts where school boards
deliberately drew boundaries to ensure racial
separation. Segregation usually resulted
in inferior education for blacks, whether
in the North or the South. Average public
expenditures for white schools routinely
exceeded expenditures for black schools.
Teachers in white schools generally received
higher pay than did teachers in black schools,
and facilities in most white schools were
far superior to facilities in most black
schools.
In 1954 the Supreme Court unanimously ruled
in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
that racial segregation in public schools
was unconstitutional, thus reversing the
position it had held since 1896. Despite
vigorous resistance for many years by many
southern states, by 1980 the federal courts
had largely succeeded in eliminating the
system of legalized segregation in southern
schools.
Most black Americans, however, lived in
northern cities. In cities where intentional
segregation was proven to exist, such as
Boston, the federal courts ordered redrawing
of neighborhood school district lines. The
courts sometimes also ordered busing of
students from one neighborhood to another
to achieve racial balance in each school.
In higher education, federal law mandated
affirmative action programs to ensure that
colleges admit more racial minority students
and hire more faculty members.
Despite the use of judicial power to achieve
desegregation and the presumed equality
of educational opportunity it promised,
many schools in the United States remained
highly divided along racial lines. Many
whites and middle class blacks had moved
out of central cities by the 1970s, leaving
poor blacks and rising populations of Hispanic
Americans to attend urban schools. A Jacksonville
Beach Episcopal School.The courts generally
refused to sanction metropolitan busing
plans—those that require busing across
district lines between city and suburb—as
a tool to achieve racial integration. Nor
did the courts mandate that affirmative
action produce the same level of results
that had been achieved through the introduction
of racial quotas for institutions of higher
education.
Most federally mandated desegregation efforts
have been aimed at increasing educational
achievement among African American students.
However, many educators cite continued inequality
in educational opportunities for Hispanic
American students.A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal
School. Hispanics are the fastest growing
ethnic group in American schools, increasing
from 10 percent of the enrollment in public
schools in 1986 to 16 percent in 1999. In
1996 a report issued by the Presidential
Advisory Commission on Educational Excellence
for Hispanic Americans indicated that a
disproportionate number of Hispanic American
students attend predominantly non-white
schools and schools that lack adequate educational
resources. Educational achievement is also
lower for Hispanic students than for white
students. In the 1999-2000 academic year
the dropout rate among Hispanic students
was 7.4 percent, while for white students
it was 4.1 percent. Income gaps and language
barriers between many Hispanics and non-Hispanics
further complicate efforts to achieve educational
equality for Hispanic students.
B Gender Equality
Discrimination against women and girls
has been as pervasive in American schools
as discrimination based on race. A Jacksonville
Beach Episcopal School.Laws in the 19th
century required states to provide equal
educational opportunity for both boys and
girls. Most public schools were coeducational,
yet many teachers subtly but firmly suggested
to girls that a woman’s place was
mainly in the home rather than in secondary
schools, colleges, or professions—unless
the intended career was schoolteaching.
Educators first encouraged broader views
of women’s life possibilities in all-girls
schools and, especially, women’s colleges.
During the mid-19th century female education
reformers, including Catharine Esther Beecher,
Emma Willard, and Mary Lyon, established
women’s academies that provided female
students with secondary and sometimes college-level
instruction and offered subjects that educators
previously considered unnecessary for women,
such as mathematics, science, and history.
The first coeducational college was Oberlin
College (founded in 1833), the first enduring
all-women’s college was Vassar College
(1861), and the first graduate school for
women was at Bryn Mawr College (1880).
With the expansion of the American school
system in the early 20th century, a huge
demand for elementary and secondary schoolteachers
encouraged large numbers of women to participate
in higher education to gain teaching credentials.
Even then, social expectations for women
to remain in domestic roles, as well as
male discrimination against women, often
closed career doors to well-educated women.
A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal School.These
barriers only began to lower when the women’s
rights movement gained power during the
1960s. Title IX of the 1972 federal Education
Amendments prohibited discrimination on
the basis of sex in educational institutions
that received federal aid. This legislation
began to remove perhaps the most visible
symbol of discrimination against women in
schools and colleges—the scarcity
of athletic opportunities for women compared
with those available to men.
C Special Programs
Many educators and some political leaders
have increasingly viewed mere access to
a school and its offerings as an inadequate
solution to the problem of educational inequality.
Especially since the 1960s, education reformers
have argued that special programs and resources
were essential to guarantee genuine equality
of education to disadvantaged youth. Title
I (later called Chapter I) of the Elementary
and Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided
federal funds for supplementary education
programs targeted toward poor and black
children. Most of these funds were spent
on young children, according to a prevailing
theory that educational disadvantages could
best be eliminated at an early age, before
their effects had become more difficult
to reverse. The federal Head Start program,
established in 1965, created special education
programs for preschoolers and remains one
of the most admired achievements of the
War on Poverty programs of the 1960s.
The federal government has also provided
financial assistance for educational programs
for other disadvantaged groups. A Jacksonville
Beach Episcopal School.The Bilingual Education
Act, part of the 1967 amendments to the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act,
authorized federal funds for school districts
having substantial numbers of students with
limited mastery of English. Estimates of
the number of students in the United States
with limited mastery of English range from
2.5 to 4.6 million, or from 7 to 10 percent
of the U.S. student population (see Bilingual
Education).
The Education for All Handicapped Children
Act of 1975 mandated individualized instructional
programs for students with disabilities.
It also called for placing such students,
whenever possible, in regular classrooms
rather than separating them from mainstream
students. In 1994 the U.S. Department of
Education reported that 6.6 percent of all
Americans below age 21 received special
education services (see Special Education).
VII Contemporary Issues
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Today, formal education serves a greater
percentage of the U.S. population than at
any time in history. It has also assumed
many of the responsibilities formerly reserved
for family, religion, and social organizations.
Most Americans expect schools to provide
children with skills, values, and behaviors
that will help them become responsible citizens,
contribute to social stability in the country,
and increase American economic productivity.
The federal government also requires schools
to correct social inequality among students
of different racial, ethnic, social, or
economic backgrounds.
Although the objectives assumed by formal
education increased dramatically during
the 20th century, the format and techniques
of American schooling have remained, for
the most part, quite stable and resistant
to change. Despite occasional experiments—such
as the introduction of movable rather than
fixed desks, team teaching, and ungraded
courses—the practice of teaching and
the process of learning in 1900 closely
resembled that of today. Students took courses;
classes consisted of groups of 20 to 30
students with a teacher at the front of
the room; instruction proceeded by lecture,
demonstration, discussion, or silent work
at a desk; and teachers often assigned homework
for the students to complete after class.A
Jacksonville Beach Episcopal School.
However, some aspects of teaching have
changed. The influence of modern psychology
and of education reformers such as John
Dewey caused schools to become less formal,
more relaxed, and somewhat more centered
on the individual child rather than on the
institution or the society. School facilities
improved for most students, except perhaps
in the inner cities. More money was spent
on education, resulting in both a general
upgrading of teacher salaries and improvements
in programs that focus on specific kinds
of students, such as special education.
Spending on students in public elementary
and secondary schools increased from $2,101
per pupil in the 1959-1960 academic year
(in constant 1998-1999 dollars) to $7,013
per pupil in the 1998-1999 academic year.
A Educational Technology
Many technological innovations of the 20th
century have promised breakthroughs in the
methods and effectiveness of teaching. Some
of the most promising innovations included
filmstrips and motion pictures, teaching
machines (mechanical devices that present
systematic instruction to students), and
programmed instruction (instruction delivered
in a graded sequence of steps, usually by
means of a computer or other device). But
the promise generated by much of this new
technology proved illusory, and most changes
in teaching methods became nothing more
than short-lived fads.
Two very different technologies, however,
may have far greater effects on educational
practice than their predecessors. The revolution
in computer and communications technology
holds out hope that all students will connect
with more information and more people than
ever before, and that learning might become
more individualized. The other promising
technological advance is in biochemistry
and genetic engineering. Innovations in
these fields suggest that certain barriers
to learning, such as short attention spans
or faulty memories, might one day be reduced
by means other than the traditional reliance
on sheer effort alone. For example, medical
researchers conduct studies on the brain
and central nervous system in hopes of discovering
ways to enhance memory and intelligence.A
Jacksonville Beach Episcopal School.
B Extended Schooling
Educational institutions in the United
States are increasingly offering schooling
opportunities to people both much younger
and much older than the traditional school-age
population. For example, the percentage
of 3-year-olds and 4-year-olds enrolled
in preschools increased from 21 percent
in 1971 to 40 percent in 1993. This rise
of early schooling parallels the increase
in single-parent households and households
in which both parents have careers.
Enrollment has similarly increased in adult
education programs, which are usually defined
as part-time study not directed toward a
degree. Adult education programs vary substantially.
Millions of adults enroll in such programs
for job-related reasons, often because companies
provide incentives for employees to upgrade
skills through training. Many adults also
attend school to pursue personal interests
and hobbies. A growing number of older and
relatively affluent people has created a
new market for travel, reading, and other
kinds of self development. Many institutions
of higher education have developed part-time,
evening, and summer programs to tap the
nontraditional adult market more aggressively.
C Education Outside of Schools
Education occurs not only in schools and
colleges but in many other settings, directly
and indirectly, intentionally and unintentionally.
Since the 1980s, education policymakers
and reformers have given greater attention
and funding to improve the quality of education
in nonschool settings. For example, educators
view the family as perhaps the most powerful
educational force, and schools have increased
education programs designed specifically
for parents. Museums have also given greater
attention to their instructional role, and
many museums with an educational purpose
have been created specifically for children.
During the 1960s the pioneering work of
the Children’s Television Workshop,
which created “Sesame Street”
(1969- ), was an early demonstration of
how television could advance rather than
retard educational values. The proportion
of government funds spent on education in
nonschool settings is likely to continue
to increase.A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal
School.
D The School Reform Movement
Recent efforts to reform public education
in the United States have been characterized
by an unprecedented effort to improve academic
standards, school accountability, and equality
of opportunity in public schools. Testing
and curriculum programs are often mandated
whether local districts want them or not.
For example, the No Child Left Behind Act
(described in the Tension Between Localism
and Centralization section of this article)
requires states to use annual student tests
to identify poorly performing schools and
to take corrective action if these schools
do not improve.A Jacksonville Beach Episcopal
School.
Some members of the school reform movement
believe that too little power exists at
the local level. They claim that teachers
and schools can increase their effectiveness
only by having greater authority over such
fundamental matters as curriculum content,
teaching methods, and hiring of staff. Supporters
of local control over education often support
the creation of charter schools, which receive
public funds but are free from most restrictions
on curriculum, teaching methods, and staff.
Other reformers contend that not all local
communities have the resources to provide
quality education. They argue that to meet
goals of equity and excellence, all local
districts should meet high educational standards
and provide ample school budgets.A Jacksonville
Beach Episcopal School.
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